Hard-Line Protestants force a Re-Write
Walk into any Anglican cathedral or church, and the chances are that you will find a Book of Common Prayer somewhere within. Although this Prayer Book is now a well-established part of the Anglican Church service, its origins are firmly rooted in the ideological struggle of the English Reformation.
By the time Henry VIII died, in 1547, the English religion was basically still Catholic - but with a difference. Although Henry had broken with Rome and wound down the monasteries, the mass was still a Catholic one, told in Latin, and Catholic sacraments remained. Henry had dabbled with Reformist ideas, ordering that English bibles be placed in every parish, and even reducing the number of sacraments from seven to two for a short period of time. But he changed his mind, and for the last eight years of his life Catholic practices remained almost in full, although Henry persecuted hard line Reformists and Catholics alike.
It was during the short reign of Henry's son, King Edward VI, that something like real Protestantism gradually became the official religion of the country. In 1549 Archbishop Thomas Cranmer produced what is now known as the First English Prayer Book, and it became the sole legal form of worship. This Prayer Book was the first attempt at putting the English service into a single volume, and it set out a format of worship to be followed throughout the year. It was a move in a Protestant direction because it emphasised scripture as the basis of the service, and some of the Catholic ceremonial elements were removed. Also, the service was now in English rather than Latin. Yet this Prayer Book was still open to both Catholic and Protestant interpretation. The order of the old Latin mass was mostly retained, and, of utmost importance at the time, the matter of transubstantiation (the belief that the bread and wine changed into the body and blood of Christ) was left open As a result of this ambiguity, Archbishop Cranmer received pressure from all manner of Reformists. Various notable foreign reformers, such as Peter Martyr and Martin Bucer, had recently fled the Counter Reformation in Europe, and sought refuge in England. They urged Cranmer to produce a genuinely reformed Prayer Book. At the same time, Bishops such as Ridley of London sometimes took their own steps beyond the first Prayer Book. For instance, from 1550 Ridley issued an order that turned all altars in his London diocese into communion tables, symbolising the removal of barriers between officiating priests and participating laity.
The result was that, in 1552, Cranmer produced a new Prayer Book. There has been much historical debate over the authorship and meaning of the Second Prayer Book, because we don't know exactly who drafted it. While Cranmer, obviously played a central role in it, it is possible that Martyr, Ridley, John Knox and Hooper amongst others may all have had some input. Whatever the authorship, the Second Prayer Book was significant because it completely altered the First Prayer Book, and put forward a much more Protestant form of worship.
The key to the Protestant emphasis of the Second Prayer Book was the stance it took on the issue of transubstantiation. The Second Prayer Book's emphasis on remembrance, and feeding by faith, made it plain that this was not Christ's body or blood that were being consumed but something that represented them. The denial of transubstantiation is rationalised by the fact that "the natural body and blood of our saviour Christ … are in heaven and not here. For it is against the truth of Christ's true natural body, to be in more places than in one at one time". There were plenty of other changes too. The Catholic altar was replaced by a communion table, possibly in recognition of what Ridley and others had already done. The Calvinist doctrine of predestination, the idea of souls elected to go to heaven, also replaced the Catholic idea of salvation through good works. Therefore, whereas the First Prayer Book said that "when the judgement shall come which thou hast committed to thy well beloved Son … we, may be found acceptable in thy sight, and receive blessing, the Second Prayer Book changed this to "and in whom the souls of them that be elected, after they be delivered from the burden of the flesh, be in joy and felicity". The Second Prayer Book also reduced the amount of ceremony during the service. For instance, in the baptism ceremony, the Second Prayer Book excluded the exorcism "I command thee, unclean spirit, in the name of the Father … that thou come out, and depart from these infants".
Ironically, the new Prayer Book was only to last a year or so as the basis of worship because Edward VI died and was replaced by Mary I, a devout Catholic. Yet ultimately, as some Anglican Cathedrals and churches demonstrate, the Prayer Book was to endure.
The Anglican Thirty- Nine Articles
The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion are the historic defining statements of Anglican doctrine.
The articles were established by a Convocation of the Church in 1563, under the direction of Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, using as a basis the Forty-Two Articles written under the direction of Thomas Cranmer in 1552 and enacted under Edward VI in 1553. Adherence to them was made a legal requirement by parliament in 1571. They are printed in the Book of Common Prayer and other Anglican prayer books. The Test Act of 1673 made adherence to the Thirty-Nine Articles a requirement for holding civil office in England (an act which has since been repealed). Clergy of the Church of England are still required to take an oath that the doctrine in the Articles is "agreeable to the Word of God," but the laity are not, and other Churches of the Anglican Communion do not make such a requirement.
Most of the substance of the articles can be labelled as Reformed Catholicism[1]. The Articles were not intended as a complete statement of the Christian faith, but as a statement of the position of the Church of England over against the Roman Catholic Church and against dissident protestants. The Articles also argue against some Anabaptist positions such as the holding of goods in common, and the necessity of believer's baptism. The reason for the imposition of the 39 articles at this point in British history was that it had not been possible to find a protestant consensus since the separation with Rome. The establishment was concerned by the rise in influence of dissenters who wanted the reformation to go much further, and, for example, to abolish hierarchies of bishops. The democratic threat could be calmed by imposing a compromise position - the thirty-nine articles.
The Articles are a revealing window into the ethos and character of Anglicanism, in particular in the way the document works to navigate a via media, or "middle path," between the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and of the continental Protestant reformers. In this sense, the Articles portray a movement striving to integrate its Catholic patrimony with the insights and principles of the Reformation.
John Henry Newman's Tract 90, written before his conversion to Roman Catholicism, attempted to show that the Articles could be interpreted in a way less hostile to Roman Catholic doctrine.
Outside the Church of England, Anglican views of the Thirty-Nine Articles vary. The Episcopal Church in the United States of America regards them as an historical document and does not require members to adhere to them.
Anglican priest John Wesley adapted the Thirty-Nine Articles for use by American Methodists in the 18th century. The resulting Articles of Religion remain official United Methodist doctrine.
Content of the document
The Articles highlight some of the major differences between Anglican and Roman Catholic doctrine, as well as more conventional declarations of a Trinitarian Christianity. They are divided, per the command of Queen Elizabeth I, into four sections: Articles 1-8, "The Catholic Faith"; Articles 9-18, "Personal Religion"; Articles 19-31, "Corporate Religion"; and Articles 32-39, "Miscellaneous."
In the order given in the Book of Common Prayer (with a brief summary when the title is not wholly clear), they are:
I. Of Faith in the Holy Trinity
This article affirms the Trinitarian godhead as an indivisible unity of persons, living but non-corporeal, infinite and eternal, Creator and Redeemer.
II. Of the Word or Son of God, which was made very Man
This article essentially re-asserts the creedal satements concerning the nature of Christ, emphasizing that the hypostatic union of his divinity and humanity. It assumes a substitutional atonement perspective vis--vis Christ's Passion and death, stating that he "was crucified, dead, and buried, to reconcile his Father to us, and to be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for actual sins of men."
III. Of the going down of Christ into Hell
Again, in keeping with the creeds, the article simply asserts that "As Christ died for us, and was buried, so also is it to be believed, that he went down into Hell."
IV. Of the Resurrection of Christ
This article affirms the fully corporeal resurrection of Christ.
V. Of the Holy Ghost
Again following on the creeds, this article expresses the unity of the Holy Spirit with the other two persons of the godhead.
VI. Of the Sufficiency of the holy Scripture for Salvation
In full, the first clause of this article reads: "Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation. In the name of the Holy Scripture we do understand those canonical Books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority was never any doubt in the Church."
The canonical books are then listed, with the Apocryphal (or deuterocanonical) books recommended (quoting Jerome) "for example of life and instruction in manners; ... [but not] to establish any doctrine."
VII. Of the Old Testament
Article VII professes consistency between the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, seeing Christ's presence and activity in both. It also makes a distinction between the commandments of the Pentateuch (the legal requirements of the Hebrew people articulated in the first five books of the Old Testament). Those "touching Ceremonies and Rites, do not bind Christian men, nor the Civil precepts thereof ought of necessity to be received in any commonwealth; yet notwithstanding, no Christian man whatsoever is free from the obedience of the Commandments which are called Moral."
VIII. Of the Three Creeds (Nicene, Athanasian, and Apostles' Creed)
In full, "The three Creeds, Nicene Creed, Athanasius's Creed, and that which is commonly called the Apostles' Creed, ought thoroughly to be received and believed: for they may be proved by most certain warrants of Holy Scripture."
Following Article VI, the Catholic Creeds are accepted precisely because they can be proved from scripture.
IX. Of Original or Birth-sin
Article IX affirms the congenital sinfulness of human nature, "so that the flesh lusteth always contrary to the Spirit; and therefore in every person born into this world, it deserveth God's wrath and damnation." Quoting St. Paul's frequent condemnation of the "desires of the flesh" (quoted here in the Greek - φρονημα σαρκος - presumably for precise, scriptural emphasis and exegesis), the article asserts its power to resist subjection to divine law.
X. Of Free Will
Flowing from the preceding article, Article X proclaims that "natural strength and good works" is insufficient without faith, specifically by the grace of God allowing us to employ our wills for good.
XI. Of the Justification of Man
This attests to the concern of Anglicanism that sanctification is the fruit of salvation, visibly manifested in the transformation of the believer's life and behaviour.
XII. Of Good Works
Article XII strives to chart a via media between what was seen as over-emphasis on good works as a path to merit in the Roman tradition, and the complete rejection of the role of of good works in the life of faith, as was attributed to continental Protestantism, notably that of Calvin and Luther. In this sense, it provides a response by the Ecclesia anglicana to the Lutheran doctrine of sola fide (justification through faith alone).
XIII. Of Works before Justification
That works done before one is justified are not pleasing to God, do not bring grace, and as not commanded by God, "have the nature of sin";
XIV. Of Works of Supererogation
that it impious to suppose that one can do more good works than God commands or requires;
XV. Of Christ Alone without Sin
XVI. Of Sin after Baptism
That the baptized believer is capable both of committing mortal ("deadly") sin, and of being forgiven upon true repentance;
XVII. Of Predestination and Election
XVIII. Of Obtaining Eternal Salvation only by the Name of Christ
That only in the name of Christ is one saved and not by following the law of nature or of another religion;
XVIV. Church
That the visible Church of Christ is the congregation of those who preach the Word of God and minister the sacraments; and that the Eastern and Roman Churches have erred in matters of faith as well as practice;
XX Of the Authority of the Church
This article exemplifies another attribute characteristic of Anglicanism, namely a conviction in the authority of tradition in the church, exemplified in doctrine and conciliar resolution. Other Anglican documents, notably the Act of Uniformity (1559), particularly designated the binding authority of the first four great ecumenical councils, and, less universally, the fifth and sixth.
Following on the assertions of Article XII, this article explores more fully the relationship between faith and works, coming down in opposition to sola fide as articulated in the Augsburg Confession. Reconciliation with God is achieved through faith, and the Article quotes Ephesians
2:8-9 and St. Augustine in support of this principle. The human conscience is assured through faith, but faith also permits "the heart [to be] moved to good works."
XXI. Of the Authority of General Councils
With implicit appeal to the convocation of the early ecumenical councils (all by emperors, not popes), Article XXI unreservedly assumes the will of the secular authorities in convening general councils of the church. Nonetheless, the ultimate primacy of scripture is affirmed, and, by implication, error is attributed to the failure to use scripture as a basis for deliberation and action.
XXII. Of Purgatory
That the Roman Catholic doctrines of purgatory, pardons (e.g. indulgences), the adoration of images and relics, and the invocation of saints, are unscriptural inventions;
XXIII. Of Ministering in the Congregation
That only those publicly and legally authorized should preach or minister the sacraments;
XXIV. Of Speaking in the Congregation in such a tongue as the people understandeth
XXV. Of the Sacraments
The incarnational perspective vital to Anglicanism is manifest here with respect to the "effectual signs of grace." In Anglican sacramental theology, God acts through the physical and material world God has created, and Jesus Christ is the mediator of that Creation and its redemption. The sacraments have a practical spiritual function in that they intensify faith, and, by implication, strengthen one's Christian character.
XXVI. Of the Unworthiness of the Ministers, which hinders not the effect of the Sacrament
XXVII. Of Baptism
That it is a sign of Regeneration and the instrument by which one becomes a member of the Church and receives grace; and that the baptism of young children is to be retained;
XXVIII Of the Lord's Supper
This article, while explicitly rejecting the doctrine of transubstantiationism nonetheless expresses the conviction in the Real Presence of Christ's Body and Blood in the consecrated elements.
XXIX Of the Wicked which eat not the Body of Christ in the use of the Lord's Supper
that the wicked and unbelievers who take communion do not partake Christ but are condemned (see manducatio impiorum);
XXX. Of both kinds
that lay people ought to receive the wine as well as the bread;
XXXI. Of the one Oblation of Christ finished upon the Cross
While this article expressly rejects the belief that the Eucharist involves a re-enactment of the sacrifice of Christ, it does so in balance with Cranmer's Eucharistic prayer "that by the merits and death of thy Son Jesus Christ...we and all thy whole Church may obtain remission of sins, and all other benefits of His passion."
XXXII. Of the Marriage of Priests
That bishops, priests, and deacons are not commanded to celibacy but may marry at their own discretion;
XXXIII. Of Excommunicate Persons, how they are to be avoided
XXXIV. Of the Traditions of the Church
That uniformity is not necessary, but that openly flouting accepted church traditions that are not unscriptural deserves rebuke, as threatening good order; and that national churches have authority to change rites of human origin;
XXXV. Of the Homilies
That two specified books of homilies should be read in churches (includes a list of homilies by Thomas Cranmer and other key bishops);
XXXVI. Of Consecration of Archbishops, Bishops and Other Ministers
That the ordination rite set out in the reign of Edward VI (the "Edwardine Ordinal") is valid and lawful; In the American Prayer Book, this is: "Of the Consecration of Bishops and Other Ministers."
XXXVII. Of the Civil Magistrates
That the Monarch is the supreme power in England, and not subject to any foreign power; that the Monarch does not administer Word or Sacrament, but has the power to rule both church and secular estates;
XXXVIII. Of Christian Men's Goods, which are not common
That private property is affirmed, though all should give what alms they can from what they have;
XXXIX. Of a Christian Man's Oath
That rash swearing is forbidden, but not swearing in a court of law.
1. Henry Chadwick, Tradition, Fathers, and Councils. In "The Study of Anglicanism," ed. by S. Sykes and J. Booty. London: SPCK, 1988
· Newman, John Henry ([1883] 1841). "No. 90 of the Tracts for the Times—VII. Remarks on certain Passages of the Thirty-nine Articles". Retrieved on 2006-08-02.
Further reading
· Church of England (1990?). The Book of Common Prayer and administration of the sacraments and other rites and ceremonies of the Church according to the use of the Church of England. Eyre & Spottiswoode. ISBN 0-521-51134-8. (Note: contains the text of the Thirty-Nine Articles)
· MacCulloch (2004). Reformation - Europe's house divided 1490-1700. Penguin Books. ISBN 0 140 28534 2.
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